CBSE Notes Class 10 History Chapter 1 – The
Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Frédéric Sorrieu Vision of the World
Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, in 1848, prepared a
series of four prints, visualising his dream of a world made up of democratic
and Social Republics.
- The
first print shows the people of Europe and America marching in a long
train and offering homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass it. The
torch of Enlightenment was carried by a female figure in one hand and the
Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
- On
the earth in the foreground lie the shattered remains of the symbols of
absolutist institutions.
- In
Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the people of the world are grouped as distinct
nations, identified through their flags and national costume.
- The
procession was led by the United States and Switzerland, followed by
France and Germany. Following the German people are the people of Austria,
the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland,
Hungary and Russia.
- From
the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene. They
have been used by the artist to symbolise fraternity among the nations of
the world.
During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a
force which brought huge changes in the political and mental world of Europe.
The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state.
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
- In
1789, Nationalism came with the French Revolution and the political and
constitutional changes led to the transfer of sovereignty from the
monarchy to a body of French citizens. Various measures and practices were
introduced, such as the ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen
(the citizen). A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the
former one.
- Democracy
was destroyed in France by Napoleon, and the Civil Code of 1804, known as
the Napoleonic Code, did away with all privileges based on birth,
established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
The Making of Nationalism in Europe
Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms,
duchies and cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories.
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
The Aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent
politically and socially. The majority of the population was made up of the
peasantry. Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the
eighteenth century. New social groups came into being: a working-class
population and a middle class made up of industrialists, businessmen, and
professionals.
What Did Liberal Nationalism Stand For?
- The
term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free. The
right to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to
property-owning men. Men without property and all women were excluded from
political rights.
- In
1834, a customs union or Zollverein was formed at the initiative of
Prussia and joined by most of the German states. The union abolished
tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to
two.
A New Conservatism after 1815
- In
1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.
Conservatives believed in monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, and
property and that the family should be preserved.
- A
modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, and the
abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic
monarchies of Europe.
- In
1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia
and Austria met in Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.
- The
Bourbon dynasty was restored to power, and France lost the territories it
had annexed under Napoleon.
- The
major issue taken up by the liberal nationalists, who criticised the new
conservative order, was the freedom of the press.
The Revolutionaries
- In
1815, secret societies were formed in many European states to train
revolutionaries and spread their ideas. Revolutionaries opposed
monarchical forms and fought for liberty and freedom.
- The
Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1807, founded two
more underground societies, the first being Young Italy in Marseilles.
- Secondly,
he founded Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men
from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.
The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848
In July 1830, Bourbon Kings were overthrown by liberal
revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at
its head. The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to
Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. In 1821,
Greeks struggled for independence.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
- Culture
played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and
poetry, stories, and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings.
- Romanticism
was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of
nationalist sentiment. Language also played an important role in
developing nationalist sentiments.
- The
Russian language was imposed everywhere, and in 1831, an armed rebellion
against Russian rule took place, which was ultimately crushed.
Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
Europe faced economic hardships in the 1830s. The first half
of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over
Europe. The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread
pauperism in towns and countries. In 1848, food shortages and widespread
unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads.
The Revolution of the Liberals
In 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was
underway. Men and women of the liberal middle class demanded the creation of a
nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press
and freedom of association.
A large number of political associations came together in
Frankfurt to vote for an all-German National Assembly. On 18 May 1848, 831
elected representatives marched to take their places in the Frankfurt
parliament convened in the Church of St Paul.
The Constitution drafted for the German nation was headed by
a monarchy, subject to a Parliament. The Crown was offered to Friedrich Wilhelm
IV, King of Prussia, but he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the
elected assembly. The Middle Class dominated the Parliament, and a large number
of women participated in the liberal movement.
Women formed their own political associations, founded
newspapers and took part in
political meetings and demonstrations, but they were still
denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly.
In the years after 1848, the autocratic monarchies of
Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes that had already
taken place in Western Europe before 1815. Thus, serfdom and bonded labour were
abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
The Making of Germany and Italy
Germany – Can the Army Be the Architect of a Nation?
Nationalism in Europe moved away after 1848, and Germany and
Italy came to be unified as nation-states. Prussia took over the leadership of
the movement for national unification. The architect of this process was its
chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, and it was carried out with the help of the
Prussian army and bureaucracy.
In January 1871, the Prussian King, William I, was
proclaimed German Emperor. An assembly was held to proclaim the new German
Empire. The process of nation-building demonstrated the dominance of Prussian
state power. The currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany were
modernised.
Italy Unified
Italy was divided into seven states in the middle of the
nineteenth century, and among all the seven states, Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled
by an Italian princely house. All the regions were dominated by different
kings. In the 1830’s Giuseppe Mazzini formed a secret society called Young
Italy.
The movement was led by Chief Minister Cavour. In 1859,
Sardinia-Piedmont defeated Austrian forces. In 1860, they marched into South
Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support
of the local peasants. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united
Italy.
The Strange Case of Britain
Great Britain was the model of the nation, and prior to the
eighteenth century, there was no British nation. The nation became powerful as
it steadily grew in wealth, importance and power.
The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland
resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in
effect, that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. In 1801,
Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom. The symbols of the
new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our
Noble King), and the English language – were actively promoted.
Visualising the Nation
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, artists
represented a country as a person and nations as female figures. During the
French Revolution, female figures portray ideas such as Liberty, Justice and
the Republic. Liberty is represented as a red cap or the broken chain, and
justice as a blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales.
Nationalism and Imperialism
Nationalism was no longer retained after the last quarter of
the nineteenth century. After 1871, the most tensioned area was called the
Balkans, a region comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece,
Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
Ottoman Empire made the Balkans region explosive, and all
through the nineteenth century, they strengthened themselves through
modernisation and internal reforms. Due to various conflicts, Balkan became an
area of intense conflict.
During this period, intense rivalry built among the European
powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might, which led
to a series of wars in the region and, finally, the First World War.
In 1914, Europe was disastered because of Nationalism,
aligned with imperialism. Anti-imperial movements were developed, but they all
struggled to form independent nation-states. But the idea of ‘nation-states’
was accepted as natural and universal.
